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1789 - the beginning of the end of monarchies across Europe with the beginning of the French Revolution. iow, there were 60 years of instability and war and massive social change that created those revolutions in 1848.
France's revolution occurred b/c of financial crises - funding the American Revolution - by an educated population of aristocrats and an emerging "middle class" (lawyers, writers, educators) denied any say in their govt's actions.
First they tried to rule with Louis XVI as a figurehead - but the monarchies on the continent freaked out and declared war on France. Prussian armies crossed the border - and soon after, Louis and many aristocrats who sided with the monarchies lost their lives.
Napoleon led many military campaigns across Europe and came back to France to declare a military dictatorship in 1799 after 10 years of revolution and unsuccessful attempts to create a stable governing authority for France.
In 1804, Napoleon established his governing "code" for France and saw its adoption in most all the conquered lands in Europe - including Belgium, The Netherlands, states in "Italy," Poland, and all of the German Empire - in other words - those places that were part of the uprisings in 1848.
Napoleon put members of his family in positions of power in these places in order to enact the new law - they were not universally welcomed. But they changed the existing view of law, rights and privilege.
This code established meritocratic forms of advancement in society (rather than aristocratic privilege), educational standards for citizens, a uniform standard of weights and measures for trade, separation of church and state, and the reform of legal codes.
Napoleon, in fact, began the modernization of all the Europe and the downfall of all empires - including his own.
At this same time, with the defeat of the church's power - but, more importantly, with the belief in humankind's ability to understand the workings of the world w/o religious explanation - scientific research exploded across the continent.
Those who were part of the ruling classes were largely not part of this revolution - esp. in England. Those who began the industrial revolution were the same "class" that began the French Revolution - the educated who were not part of the aristocratic system - who did not have access to Cambridge or Oxford - those who did not pledge fealty to the state-approved church.
While the continent was absorbed in war, England began to change the way in which labor was performed across Europe over this new century. While England began to change the way labor was performed, advances in printing changed the level information that was made available to people across the continent.
This was another information revolution - like the invention of the printing press and the overthrow of the church's control of the spread of knowledge with the invention of movable type a few hundred years before.
In 1815, Napoleon was defeated in Russia - and sent into exile. The monarchy restored the position of King and fights continued between royalists, the absolute monarchists and republicans in France - the Bourbons lost the absolute monarchy fight and the royalists took control in 1830.
This is the govt that was in power leading up to the next phase of revolution - the beginning of labor strikes and the anarchist movements in the world - which started 15 years before the commune of 1848. Iow, that year of revolution did not spring fully formed from the head of... not Zeus.. more like the strong arms of Vulcan.
This govt. was indebted to financial investors for control - it was a monarchy, but not absolute - aristocrats did not have the levers of power - finance capitalists did.
Capitalists became, in effect, the "new" aristocracy.
This monarchy fell - but after the uprisings in 1848, Napoleon's nephew declared himself Emperor.
nevertheless, the course of modern history had begun with the first labor uprisings, the beginning of the end of feudalism (aristocratic land-holding/serf controlling wealth), and the beginning of a consciousness of the working people of the world sharing a common desire for human rights and reasonable working conditions and govts that had to take into account the will of the common person.
This moment in time was the beginning of socialism, as well, when a French printer, Proudhon, questioned the meaning of property - whether it be human or geographical.
and, oh yeah, those guys named Marx and Engel.
History is a constant struggle for the right to agency and power among all groups.
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